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Al-Falaki. Gelar itu ditabalkan para ilmuwan di era kejayaan Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah kepada Abu Mashar berkat kehebatannya dalam bidang astrologi (ilmu perbintangan). Gerrit Bos dalam tulisannya bertajuk Abu Mashar: The Abbreviation of the Introduction to Astrology, Together with the Medieval Latin Translation of Adelard of Bath, menyebut Abu Mashar sebagai astrolog hebat di abad ke-9 M.

Karya-karya Abu Mashar dalam bidang astrologi begitu populer dan sangat ber pengaru h bagi peradaban masyarakat Eropa Barat di abad pertengahan, ujar Bos. Betapa tidak. Sederet adikarya sang Astrolog Muslim itu telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin. Menurut Bos, Abu Mashar tak hanya berpengaruh dalam bidang astrologi, ia juga berkontribusi dalam bidang kedokteran.

Penjelasan mengenai soal epidemik, papar Bos, merupakan salah satu pengaruh besar Abu Mashar dalam bidang kedokteran di Eropa. Ia menghubungkan masalah kedokteran dengan fenomena luar angkasa lewat teorinya yang disangat popular, yakni Theory of the Great Conjunctions.

Menurut teori ini, hubungan planet tertentu dapat menyebabkan bencana alam dan politik, tutur Bos. Salah satu bencana besar yang dihubung-hubungkan para dokter di abad ke -14 dengan teori yang dicetuskan Abu Mashar adalah fenomena Black Death. Hal ini menunjukkan betapa pemikiran Abu Mashar begitu berpengaruh terhadap peradaban Barat.

Keiji Yamamoto dalam tulisannya tentang sejarah hidup Abu Mashar mengungkapkan, ilmuwan Muslim terkemuka di abad ke-9 M itu terlahir pada 10 Agustus 787 M di Balkh, Persia (sekarang Afganistan). Sejatinya ia memiliki nama lengkap Jafar ibnu Muhammad Abu Mashar al-Balkhi.

Selain dikenal dengan sebutan Abu Mashar, atrolog yang satu ini juga biasa disebut dengan panggilan Abulmazar. Abu Mashar merupakan seorang ilmuwan serbabisa. Selain dikenal sebagai seorang ahli astrologi (ilmu perbintangan), Abu Mashar juga menguasai matematika, astronomi, dan filsafat Islam. Ia menekuni matematika saat berusia 47 tahun, setelah kenal dan berkecimpung dalam dunia astrologi.

Ia merupakan murid dari seorang guru yang sangat legendaris, yakni al-Kindi, ilmuwan Muslim di abad ke-8 M. Seperti sang guru, nama Abu Mas'har begitu populer di dunia Barat. Abu Ma'shar telah berjasa menyatukan pelajaran ilmu perbintangan dari berbagai sumber Islam yang luas.

Menurut Yamamoto, Abu Ma'shar juga merupakan salah satu orang yang berpe -ran sangat penting dalam pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan dalam Islam. Sayangnya, tak banyak umat Islam di era modern yang mengetahui kisah hidup Abu Mashar. Para sejarawan sains pun sangat jarang mengupas kisah hidup sang ilmuwan.

Tak heran, jika banyak hal dalam sejarah hidup sang ilmuwan yang masih misterius dan menjadi perdebatan di kalangan sejarawan. Menurut Yamamoto, Abu Ma'shar terkenal dengan karya astrologinya. Yamamoto menuturkan, Abu Ma'shar pernah menulis mengenai ilmu perbintangan, termasuk tabel astronomi. Ada beberapa pertanyaan mengenai tanggal kelahiran dan kematiannya, karena pendahulunya mengetahuinya hanya semata-mata berdasarkan pada kutipan horoskop (zodiak) yang tak dikenal dalam bukunya yang bertajuk The Revolutions of the Years of Nativities, papar Yamamoto.

Sejarah hidup Abu Ma'shar, tutur Yamamoto, ditulis seorang sejarawan pada abad ke-10 M bernama Ibnu al-Nadim (wafat 995/998 M). Salah satu misteri yang belum terungkap secara pasti tentang Abu Ma'shar adalah tahun wafatnya. Yamamoto memperkirakan, Abu Ma'shar wafat di Irak pada tahun 886 M. Sementara itu, al-Biruni (973-1048M) dalam karyanya bertajuk Chronology of the Ancient Nation menuturkan bahwa Abu Ma'shar masih melakukan pengamatan astrologi pada 892 M atau enam tahun sesudah tahun kematian yang disebutkan oleh para sejarawan. Al-Biruni dalam karyanya Book of Religions and Dynasties juga mengambil referensi dari karya Abu Ma'shar mengenai posisi bintang yang ditulis pada 896/897 M.

Karya tersebut ditulis Abu Ma'shar ketika berusia lebih dari 100 tahun. Ibnu al-Nadim dalam karyanya Fihrist mengungkapkan bahwa Abu Ma'shar merupakan ilmuwan dan filsuf yang menentang pandangan Helenistik. Pandangan Abu Ma'shar ini kemudian dimanfaatkan al-Biruni untuk memetahkan pendapat filsuf Islam sebelumnya yakni al-Kindi (801-873 M). Kemasyhuran Abu Ma'shar sebagai ahli astrologi hebat di istana Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah di Baghdad membuat namanya masuk dalam cerita tentang astrologi.

Bahkan, Ibnu Tawus (1193n1266 M) mengumpulkan beberapa anekdot Abu Ma'shar dalam karyanya berjudul Faraj al-Mahmum (Biografi Para Astrolog). Sayangnya, nyaris semua karya Abu Ma'shar dalam astronomi telah hilang, dan hanya karya astrologinya dalam bahasa Arab yang masih tersisa. Nama Abu Ma'shar tampaknya lebih populer di dunia Barat, ketimbang di dunia Islam modern. Nyaris tak ada pelajaran yang diajarkan di sekolah di Indonesia yang menyebut nama dan kontribusi Abu Ma'shar di era kekhalifahan. Sungguh sangat ironis.
Kontribusi Sang Astrolog
Siapa yang membaca akan mengetahui. Siapa yang menulis tak akan pernah mati. Peribahasa orang Perancis itu menemukan faktanya. Meski Abu Ma'shar telah tiada belasan abad silam, namun namanya tetap dikenang dan diperbincangkan kalangan ilmuwan, khususnya di dunia Barat.

Salah satu buku yang ditulis Charles Burnett bertajuk Abu Ma'shar: The Abbreviation of the Introduction to Astrology merupakan bukti betapa pemikiran sang ilmuwan masih dianggap penting oleh dunia Barat.

Richard Lemay dalam karyanya berjudul Abu Ma'shar and Latin Aristotelianism in the Twelfth Century, The Recovery of Aristotles Natural Philosophy through Iranian Astrology, masih tertarik dengan pemikiran sang astrolog Muslim.

Dalam bukunya itu Lemay berargumentasi bahwa tulisan Abu Ma'shar sangat mirip dengan salah satu karya terpenting teori Aristoteles tentang alam. Salah satu karya Abu Ma'shar dalam bidang astrologi yang sangat berpengaruh berjudul Kitab al-Mudkhal al-Kabir. Kitab ini terdiri dari 106 bab.

Karyanya ini diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin pada tahun 1133 M dan tahun 1140 M. Selain itu, buku yang ditulis Abu Mafshar pun diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Yunani. Tak heran, jika buah pikir Abu Mafshar telah memiliki pengaruh yang signifikan kepada ahli filsafat Barat, salah satunyai Albert The Great.

Abu Ma'shar juga menulis sebuah versi ringkas dalam mengenalkan karyanya Kitab Mukhtafar alfMudkhal yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin oleh Adelard of Bath. Buku lainnya yang ditulis Abu Ma'shar yang terkenal dan diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin bertajuk Introductorium in Astronmiam.

Buku itu merupakan terjemahan dari kitab berbahasa Arab yakni Kitab al-Mudkhal al-Kabir ila eIlm Ahkam Annujjum, yang ditulis Abu Ma'shar di Baghdad pada 848 M. Kali pertama, kitab itu dialihbahasakan ke dalam bahasa Latin oleh John of Seville pada 1133 M, dan selanjutnya, literatur dibuat lebih sedikit dan ringkas oleh Herman of Carinthia pada 1140 M.

Karya lainnya yang ditulis Abu Ma'shar adalah sejarah astrologi yang memperkenalkan tradisi Sasaniah. Ini dibuat pada era kekuasaan Khalifah al-Mansur, khalifah kedua pada dinasti Abbasiyah. Ini merupakan bagian strategi politik al-Mansur untuk memberikan sebuah yayasan untuk lahirnya dinasti baru, dan tentu saja itu digunakan paling efektif antar Dinasti Abbasiyah sebelumnya.

Buku Abu Ma'shar yang monumental dalam kategori sejarah adalah Kitab al-Milal wa-l-Duwal (Kitab tentang agama-agama dan dinasti). Buku itu terdiri dari delapan bagian dalam 63 bab. Karyanya yang satu ini diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin dan dibaca oleh Roger Bacon, Pierre dfAilly, dan Pico della Mirandola (1463n1494 M).

Pemikiran Abu Ma'shar ini tentunya juga dibahas dalam karya besar mereka. Karya lain dalam kategori ini meliputi Fi dhikr ma tadullu elayhi al-ashkhas al-fulwiyya, Kitab aldalalat elaalittisalat waqiranat al-kawakib,dan Kitab aluluf (Book of Thousands), yang tidak bertahan lama tapi ringkasannya dipelihara oleh Sijzi (945-1020M).

Karya lainnya dari sang ilmuwan dikategorikan dalam genethlialogi, ilmu pengetahuan mengenai pemilihan kelahiran. Salah satu contoh adalah Kitab Tahawil Sini al-Mawalid (Book of the revolutions of the years of nativities).

Buku ini juga telah dialihbahasakan ke dalam bahasa Yunani. Kitab itu terdiri dari sembilan volume dan terbagi menjadi 96 bab. Yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Yunani hanya lima volume dan terdiri dari 57 bab.

Karya lain Abu Ma'shar yang masuk dalam kategori ini adalah Kitab Mawalid al-Rijal wa-al-Nisa atau (Buku Asal Pira dan Wanita). Dalam karyanya Introductorium in Astronomiam and De magnis coniunctionibus, Abu Ma'shar, mengatakan, dunia diciptakan ketika tujuh planet bergabung dengan Aries, dan ramalan itu bisa berakhir ketika fenomena yang sama terjadi pada Pisces.

Terjemahan kedalam bahasa Latin dan dalam bahasa sehari-hari menjadikan karyanya beredar luas di Eropa dan menjadi sumber inspirasi untuk literatur penggambaran astrologi dengan beberapa pengarang minor awal era modern.

Astronomi
Abu Ma'shar mengembangkan model planet yang beberapa penafsiran sebagai sebuah model heliosentrik. Ini menunjukkan pada revolusi orbital planet diberikan sebagai revolusi heliosentrik lebih baik dari pada revolusi geosentrik dan hanya diketahui teori planet di kejadian ini dalam teori heliosentrik.

Karyanya dalam teori planet tidak dapat bertahan, tapi data astronomnya terakhir direkam oleh al-Hashimi dan al-Biruni, jelas Bartel Leendert van der Waerden dalam karyanya The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy.(rp) www.suaramedia.com

Beliaulah cikal bakal madhzab Maliki. Imam Malik yang bernama lengkap Abu Abdullah Malik bin Anas bin Malik bin Abi Amir bin Amr bin Haris bin Gaiman bin Kutail bin Amr bin Haris al Asbahi, lahir di Madinah pada tahun 93 H/712 M dan wafat tahun 179 H/796 M. Berasal dari keluarga Arab terhormat, berstatus sosial tinggi, baik sebelum maupun sesudah datangnya Islam. Tanah asal leluhurnya adalah Yaman, namun setelah nenek moyangnya menganut Islam, mereka pindah ke Madinah. Kakeknya, Abu Amir, adalah anggota keluarga pertama yang memeluk agama Islam pada tahun 2 H. Saat itu, Madinah adalah kota ilmu yang sangat terkenal.
Kakek dan ayahnya termasuk kelompok ulama hadits terpandang di Madinah. Karenanya, sejak kecil Imam Malik tak berniat meninggalkan Madinah untuk mencari ilmu. Ia merasa Madinah adalah kota dengan sumber ilmu yang berlimpah lewat kehadiran ulama-ulama besarnya.
Kendati demikian, dalam mencari ilmu Imam Malik rela mengorbankan apa saja. Menurut satu riwayat, sang imam sampai harus menjual tiang rumahnya hanya untuk membayar biaya pendidikannya. Menurutnya, tak layak seorang yang mencapai derajat intelektual tertinggi sebelum berhasil mengatasi kemiskinan. Kemiskinan, katanya, adalah ujian hakiki seorang manusia.
Karena keluarganya ulama ahli hadits, maka Imam Malik pun menekuni pelajaran hadits kepada ayah dan paman-pamannya. Kendati demikian, ia pernah berguru pada ulama-ulama terkenal seperti Nafi bin Abi Nuaim, Ibnu Syihab az Zuhri, Abul Zinad, Hasyim bin Urwa, Yahya bin Said al Anshari, dan Muhammad bin Munkadir. Gurunya yang lain adalah Abdurrahman bin Hurmuz, tabiin ahli hadits, fikih, fatwa dan ilmu berdebat; juga Imam Jafar Shadiq dan Rabi Rayi.
Dalam usia muda, Imam Malik telah menguasai banyak ilmu. Kecintaannya kepada ilmu menjadikan hampir seluruh hidupnya diabdikan dalam dunia pendidikan. Tidak kurang empat khalifah, mulai dari Al Mansur, Al Mahdi, Hadi Harun, dan Al Mamun, pernah jadi murid Imam Malik. Ulama besar, Imam Abu Hanifah dan Imam Syafii pun pernah menimba ilmu dari Imam Malik. Belum lagi ilmuwan dan para ahli lainnya. Menurut sebuah riwayat disebutkan murid terkenal Imam Malik mencapai 1.300 orang.
Ciri pengajaran Imam Malik adalah disiplin, ketentraman, dan rasa hormat murid kepada gurunya. Prinsip ini dijunjung tinggi olehnya sehingga tak segan-segan ia menegur keras murid-muridnya yang melanggar prinsip tersebut. Pernah suatu kali Khalifah Mansur membahas sebuah hadits dengan nada agak keras. Sang imam marah dan berkata, "Jangan melengking bila sedang membahas hadits Nabi."
Ketegasan sikap Imam Malik bukan sekali saja. Berulangkali, manakala dihadapkan pada keinginan penguasa yang tak sejalan dengan aqidah Islamiyah, Imam Malik menentang tanpa takut risiko yang dihadapinya. Salah satunya dengan Jafar, gubernur Madinah. Suatu ketika, gubernur yang masih keponakan Khalifah Abbasiyah, Al Mansur, meminta seluruh penduduk Madinah melakukan baiat (janji setia) kepada khalifah. Namun, Imam Malik yang saat itu baru berusia 25 tahun merasa tak mungkin penduduk Madinah melakukan baiat kepada khalifah yang mereka tak sukai.
Ia pun mengingatkan gubernur tentang tak berlakunya baiat tanpa keikhlasan seperti tidak sahnya perceraian paksa. Jafar meminta Imam Malik tak menyebarluaskan pandangannya tersebut, tapi ditolaknya. Gubernur Jafar merasa terhina sekali. Ia pun memerintahkan pengawalnya menghukum dera Imam Malik sebanyak 70 kali. Dalam kondisi berlumuran darah, sang imam diarak keliling Madinah dengan untanya. Dengan hal itu, Jafar seakan mengingatkan orang banyak, ulama yang mereka hormati tak dapat menghalangi kehendak sang penguasa.
Namun, ternyata Khalifah Mansur tidak berkenan dengan kelakuan keponakannya itu. Mendengar kabar penyiksaan itu, khalifah segera mengirim utusan untuk menghukum keponakannya dan memerintahkan untuk meminta maaf kepada sang imam. Untuk menebus kesalahan itu, khalifah meminta Imam Malik bermukim di ibukota Baghdad dan menjadi salah seorang penasihatnya. Khalifah mengirimkan uang 3.000 dinar untuk keperluan perjalanan sang imam. Namun, undangan itu pun ditolaknya. Imam Malik lebih suka tidak meninggalkan kota Madinah. Hingga akhir hayatnya, ia tak pernah pergi keluar Madinah kecuali untuk berhaji.
Dalam sebuah kunjungan ke kota Madinah, Khalifah Bani Abbasiyyah, Harun Al Rasyid (penguasa saat itu), tertarik mengikuti ceramah al Muwatta yang diadakan Imam Malik. Untuk hal ini, khalifah mengutus orang memanggil Imam.
"Rasyid, leluhur Anda selalu melindungi pelajaran hadits. Mereka amat menghormatinya. Bila sebagai khalifah Anda tidak menghormatinya, tak seorang pun akan menaruh hormat lagi. Manusia yang mencari ilmu, sementara ilmu tidak akan mencari manusia," nasihat Imam Malik kepada Khalifah Harun.
Sedianya, khalifah ingin jamaah meninggalkan ruangan tempat ceramah itu diadakan. Namun, permintaan itu tak dikabulkan Malik. "Saya tidak dapat mengorbankan kepentingan umum hanya untuk kepentingan seorang pribadi." Sang khalifah pun akhirnya mengikuti ceramah bersama dua putranya dan duduk berdampingan dengan rakyat kecil.
Pengendalian diri dan kesabaran Imam Malik membuat ia ternama di seantero dunia Islam. Pernah semua orang panik lari ketika segerombolan Kharijis bersenjatakan pedang memasuki masjid Kuffah. Tetapi, Imam Malik yang sedang shalat tanpa cemas tidak beranjak dari tempatnya. Mencium tangan khalifah apabila menghadap di baliurang sudah menjadi adat kebiasaan, namun Imam Malik tidak pernah tunduk pada penghinaan seperti itu. Sebaliknya, ia sangat hormat pada para cendekiawan, sehingga pernah ia menawarkan tempat duduknya sendiri kepada Imam Abu Hanifah yang mengunjunginya.
Beliau wafat pada tahun 179 hijrah ketika berumur 86 tahun dan meninggalkan 3 orang putera dan seorang puteri.
Kitab Al Muwatta
Al Muwatta adalah kitab fikih berdasarkan himpunan hadits-hadits pilihan. Santri mana yang tak kenal kitab yang satu ini. Ia menjadi rujukan penting, khususnya di kalangan pesantren dan ulama kontemporer. Karya terbesar Imam Malik ini dinilai memiliki banyak keistimewaan. Ia disusun berdasarkan klasifikasi fikih dengan memperinci kaidah fikih yang diambil dari hadits dan fatwa sahabat.
Menurut beberapa riwayat, sesungguhnya Al Muwatta tak akan lahir bila Imam Malik tidak dipaksa Khalifah Mansur. Setelah penolakan untuk ke Baghdad, Khalifah Al Mansur meminta Imam Malik mengumpulkan hadits dan membukukannya. Awalnya, Imam Malik enggan melakukan itu. Namun, karena dipandang tak ada salahnya melakukan hal tersebut, akhirnya lahirlah Al Muwatta. Ditulis di masa Al Mansur (754-775 M) dan baru selesai di masa Al Mahdi (775-785 M).
Dunia Islam mengakui Al Muwatta sebagai karya pilihan yang tak ada duanya. Menurut Syah Walilullah, kitab ini merupakan himpunan hadits paling shahih dan terpilih. Imam Malik memang menekankan betul terujinya para perawi. Semula, kitab ini memuat 10 ribu hadits. Namun, lewat penelitian ulang, Imam Malik hanya memasukkan 1.720 hadits. Kitab ini telah diterjemahkan ke dalam beberapa bahasa dengan 16 edisi yang berlainan. Selain Al Muwatta, Imam Malik juga menyusun kitab Al Mudawwanah al Kubra, yang berisi fatwa-fatwa dan jawaban Imam Malik atas berbagai persoalan.
Imam Malik tak hanya meninggalkan warisan buku. Ia juga mewariskan mazhab fikih di kalangan Islam Sunni, yang disebut sebagai Mazhab Maliki. Selain fatwa-fatwa Imam Malik dan Al Muwatta, kitab-kitab seperti Al Mudawwanah al Kubra, Bidayatul Mujtahid wa Nihaayatul Muqtashid (karya Ibnu Rusyd), Matan ar Risalah fi al Fiqh al Maliki (karya Abu Muhammad Abdullah bin Zaid), Asl al Madarik Syarh Irsyad al Masalik fi Fiqh al Imam Malik (karya Shihabuddin al Baghdadi), dan Bulgah as Salik li Aqrab al Masalik (karya Syeikh Ahmad as Sawi), menjadi rujukan utama mazhab Maliki.
Di samping sangat konsisten memegang teguh hadits, mazhab ini juga dikenal amat mengedepankan aspek kemaslahatan dalam menetapkan hukum. Secara berurutan, sumber hukum yang dikembangkan dalam Mazhab Maliki adalah Al-Quran, Sunnah Rasulullah SAW, amalan sahabat, tradisi masyarakat Madinah (amal ahli al Madinah), qiyas (analogi), dan al maslahah al mursalah (kemaslahatan yang tidak didukung atau dilarang oleh dalil tertentu).
Mazhab Maliki pernah menjadi mazhab resmi di Mekah, Madinah, Irak, Mesir, Aljazair, Tunisia, Andalusia (kini Spanyol), Marokko, dan Sudan. Kecuali di tiga negara yang disebut terakhir, jumlah pengikut mazhab Maliki kini menyusut. Mayoritas penduduk Mekah dan Madinah saat ini mengikuti Mazhab Hanbali. Di Iran dan Mesir, jumlah pengikut Mazhab Maliki juga tidak banyak. Hanya Marokko saat ini satu-satunya negara yang secara resmi menganut Mazhab Maliki. (ar/kh) www.suaramedia.com

HARGA-harga komoditi pangan di Indonesia sering tak terkontrol. Suatu saat melambung tinggi, di saat lain anjlok mencapai titik terendah. Bawang merah misalnya, harganya pernah mencapai puluhan ribu per kilo, tapi saat tiba waktu panen turun drastis. Saking rendahnya harga itu, para petani di Nganjuk, Jawa Timur pernah lebih memilih membakar barangnya daripada menjualnya.

Tidak terkontrolnya harga-harga tersebut karena begitu lemahnya peran pemerintah. Saking lemahnya, adanya pemerintah itu seperti tidak ada. Sebagian orang bilang, peran pemerintah memang dibatasi. Pemerintah tidak boleh intervensi soal harga. Harga lebih diserahkan kepada mekanisme pasar. Namun bila harga-harga melangit sehingga mencekik rakyat, pemerintah mestinya punya kewenangan mengontrol harga.

Seperti pendapat sebagian besar ulama, dalam kasus tertentu -walau mereka berpendapat sebaiknya harga memang ditentukan oleh pasar- pemerintah berhak mengontrol harga, demi melindungi rakyat. Karena dalam banyak kasus, melambungkan harga-harga itu bukan semata mekanisme pasar, melainkan lantaran ulah para tengkulak.

Dalam sejarah Islam, orang yang pertama kali turut campur menentukan harga di pasar adalah ‘Umar bin Khaththab, saat beliau menjabat khalifah. Sahabat Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam yang dikenal tegas ini punya perhatian besar kepada pasar. Sebab, pasar adalah jantung ekonomi suatu masyarakat (negara). Berangkat dari kepentingan ini, sekalipun khalifah, ‘Umar merasa perlu turun sendiri ke pasar-pasar melakukan pengawasan. Bila melihat penyimpangan beliau langsung meluruskan.

Dari Sa’id bin Al-Musayyib diriwayatkan, ‘Umar bertemu Hathib bin Abi Balta’ah yang sedang menjual kismis di pasar. ‘Umar berkata, “Kamu tambah harganya atau angkat dari pasar kami.”

Riwayat lain, dari Yahya bin Abdul Rahman bin Hathib. Dia berkata, “Ayahku dan ‘Utsman bin ‘Affan adalah dua sekutu yang mengambil kurma dari Al-Aliyah ke pasar. Mereka kemudian bertemu dengan ‘Umar. “Wahai Ibnu Abi Balta’ah, tambahlah harganya, apabila tidak, maka keluarlah dari pasar kami,” kata Umar.

Riwayat di atas menunjukkan bahwa ‘Umar begitu peduli dengan harga-harga yang berkembang di pasar. Beliau melarang menurunkan harga. Harga yang terlalu murah sepintas memang menguntungkan konsumen. Namun sesungguhnya dalam jangka panjang itu bakal menghancurkan kepentingan yang lebih besar, yakni kepentingan penjual maupun kepentingan pembeli itu sendiri.

Harga yang terlalu murah, membuat para pedagang enggan berjualan karena keuntungannya terlalu sedikit. Tidak sepadan dengan jerih payah dan modal yang dikeluarkan. Bila pedagang enggan berjualan, pada akhirnya tentu bakal mempengaruhi persedian barang. Saat persedian barang sedikit, sementara di sisi lain permintaan bertambah, yang terjadi kemudian harga melambung tinggi. Nah, ini tentu tidak menguntungkan bagi masyarakat banyak.

Karena itu, di samping melarang menurunkan harga, ‘Umar memerintahkan pedagang menjual sesuai harga pasar. Ada riwayat yang menunjukkan hal tersebut. Diriwayatkan, seorang laki-laki datang membawa kismis dan menaruhnya di pasar. Lalu dia menjual tidak dengan harga pasar. Tidak jelas di riwayat ini apakah pria itu menjual di bawah harga pasar atau justru di atasnya. Yang jelas ‘Umar berkata, “Juallah dengan harga pasar atau kamu pergi dari pasar kami. Sesungguhnya kami tidak memaksamu dengan satu harga.”

Sebagian ulama menganggap apa yang dilakukan ‘Umar tersebut bertentangan dengan ketentuan Rasulullah. Abu Dawud dan At-Tirmidzi mengisahkan, suatu hari harga-harga barang naik. Sebagian umat Islam lalu mendatangi Rasulullah, minta beliau menentukan harga. Tapi Nabi tidak bersedia. Beliau hanya berdoa, “Aku berdoa agar Allah menghilangkan mahalnya harga dan meluaskan rezeki.” Rasulullah memberi alasan kenapa menolak menentukan harga, “Sesungguhnya Allah, Dialah yang menentukan harga, yang Maha Menahan, Maha Meluaskan lagi Maha Memberi rezeki. Dan aku berharap bertemu Allah dan tidak ada seorang dari kalian meminta pertanggungjawabanku atas kezaliman dalam darah dan harta.”

Ulama lain, seperti Jaribah bin Ahmad Al-Haritsi berpendapat sebaliknya. Seperti ditulis dalam bukunya, Al Fiqh Al Iqtishadi Lil Amiril Mukminin Umar ibnu Al Khathab (diterjemahkan penerbit Khalifa dengan judul Fiqih Ekonomi Umar bin Khathab), menurut Jaribah apa yang dilakukan Umar tidak bertentangan dengan Hadits Nabi di atas. Jaribah punya dua alasan.

Pertama, naiknya harga pada zaman Nabi tersebut akibat fluktuasi dari persediaan dan permintaan barang. Artinya, harga naik karena persediaan barang sedikit sementara permintaan banyak. Karena itu Rasulullah enggan menetapkan harga. Memperkuat pendapatnya, Jaribah mengutip pendapatnya Ibnu Taimiyah. Syaikhul Islam ini berpendapat, membuat dalil berdasarkan Hadits yang menunjukkan keengganan Nabi menentukan harga, untuk membuktikan dilarangnya penentuan harga secara mutlak adalah kesalahan. “Ini adalah kasus khusus, bukan umum,” kata Ibnu Taimiyah.

Kedua, masih kata Jaribah, ‘Umar tidak membatasi harga tertentu, misalnya dengan nominal tertentu. ‘Umar hanya minta pedagang menjual dengan harga pasar. Di antara dalil yang menunjukkan ‘Umar benar-benar menjaga harga pasar adalah saat beliau memerintahkan Hathib untuk masuk ke rumahnya dan menjual kismisnya sebagaimana kehendaknya. Sebab, berjualan di rumah jauh dari penglihatan penjual dan pembeli, sehingga tidak mempengaruhi harga di pasar.

Sekalipun sikap ‘Umar tegas dalam menjaga harga pasar, namun beliau tidak kaku. Pada kasus tertentu pedagang boleh menjual barangnya di luar harga pasar.

Itu pernah dialami Al-Miswar bin Makhramah. Ia menjual makanan dengan harga modalnya atau tanpa keuntungan. ‘Umar heran dengan apa yang dilakukan Miswar tersebut, “Apakah kamu gila, wahai Miswar?”

Miswar menjawab, “Demi Allah, tidak wahai Amirul Mukminin. Tetapi aku melihat mendung musim gugur. Aku benci menahan apa yang bermanfaat bagi manusia.” Mendengar jawaban Miswar tersebut, ‘Umar segera menyahut, “Semoga Allah membalasmu dengan kebaikan.”

Tetapi jika penyimpangan harga, baik turun maupun naik yang terlalu ekstrim karena ulah pedagang, misalnya monopoli, maka menurut Jaribah, negara mesti bertindak demi kemaslahatan semua orang.

Kesimpulannya, bila terjadi pergerakan harga, baik naik maupun turun, akibat fluktuasi persediaan dan permintaan barang dalam keadaan normal, maka penentuan harga dalam keadaan seperti ini tidak diperbolehkan. Penetapan harga di saat keadaan normal, dianggap sebagai kezaliman kepada rakyat yang menyebabkan penguasa harus mempertanggungjawabkan pada Hari Kiamat kelak.

Jābir ibn Hayyān
15th-century European portrait of "Geber", Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence
Title	Abu Musa Jābir ibn Hayyān
Born	722 AD
Died	c. 804 AD
Ethnicity	Persian[1] or Arab[2][3]
School tradition	Shī‘ah[4][5]
Main interests	Alchemy and Chemistry, Astronomy, Astrology, Medicine and Pharmacy, Philosophy, Physics, philanthropist
Works	Kitab al-Kimya, Kitab al-Sab'een, Book of the Kingdom, Book of the Balances , Book of Eastern Mercury, etc.
Influences	Ja'far al-Sadiq, Alchemy, Harbi al-Himyari
Influenced	Al-Kindi, Alchemy, Chemistry

Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān (al-Azdi / al-Kufi / al-Tusi / al-Sufi), often known simply as Geber, (Persian: جابر بن حیان)(Arabic: جابر بن حیان‎) (born c. 721 in Tus, Persia; died c. 815 in Kufa, Iraq)^[6] was a prominent polymath: a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geographer, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. Born and educated in Tus, he later traveled to Kufa. Jābir is held to have been the first practical alchemist.^[7]
As early as the tenth century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jābir was in dispute in Islamic circles.^[8] His name was Latinized as "Geber" in the Christian West and in 13th century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as Pseudo-Geber, produced alchemical and metallurgical writings under the pen-name Geber.

Early references

In 987 Ibn al-Nadim compiled the Kitab al-Fihrist which mentions Jabir as a spiritual leader and as a companion to Jafar as-Sadiq (he is not listed among the students of Jafar as-Sadiq but many of the writings of the Jabirian corpus are dedicated to Jafar as-Sadiq). In another reference al-Nadim reports that a group of philosophers claimed Jabir was one of their own members. Another group, reported by al-Nadim, says only The Large Book of Mercy is genuine and that the rest are pseudographical. Their assertions are rejected by al-Nadim.^[9] Joining al-Nadim in asserting a real Jabir; Ibn-Wahshiyya ("Jaber ibn Hayyn al-Sufi ...book on poison is a great work..") Rejecting a real Jabir; (the philosopher c.970) Abu Sulayman al-Mantiqi claims the real author is one al-Hasan ibn al-Nakad al-Mawili. 14th century critic of Arabic literature, Jamal al-Din ibn Nubata al-Misri declares all the writings attributed to Jabir doubtful.^[10]

Life and background

Jabir was a Natural Philosopher who lived mostly in the 8th century, he was born in Tus, Khorasan, in Iran (Persia),^[6] then ruled by the Umayyad Caliphate. Jabir in the classical sources has been entitled differently as al-Azdi or al-Kufi or al-Tusi or al-Sufi.^[11] There is a difference of opinion^[11] as to whether he was an Arab from Kufa who lived in Khurasan or a Persian from Khorasan who later went to Kufa or whether he was, as some have suggested, of Syrian origin and later lived in Persia and Iraq.^[11] His ethnic background is not clear,^[11] and sources reference him as an Arab or a Persian.^[1] In some sources, he is reported to have been the son of Hayyan al-Azdi, a pharmacist of the Arabian Azd tribe who emigrated from Yemen to Kufa (in present-day Iraq) during the Umayyad Caliphate.^[12][13] while Henry Corbin believes Geber seems to have been a client of the 'Azd tribe.^[14] Jābir became an alchemist at the court of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, for whom he wrote the Kitab al-Zuhra ("The Book of Venus", on "the noble art of alchemy").^{[citation needed]} Hayyan had supported the Abbasid revolt against the Umayyads, and was sent by them to the province of Khorasan (present day Afghanistan and Iran) to gather support for their cause. He was eventually caught by the Ummayads and executed. His family fled to Yemen,^[12][15] where Jābir grew up and studied the Quran, mathematics and other subjects.^[12] Jābir's father's profession may have contributed greatly to his interest in alchemy.
After the Abbasids took power, Jābir went back to Kufa. He began his career practicing medicine, under the patronage of a Vizir (from the noble Persian family Barmakids) of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. His connections to the Barmakid cost him dearly in the end. When that family fell from grace in 803, Jābir was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he remained until his death.
It has been asserted that Jābir was a student of the sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq and Harbi al-Himyari,^[5][8] however other scholars have questioned this theory.^[16]

The Jabirian corpus

In total, nearly 3,000 treatises and articles are credited to Jabir ibn Hayyan.^[17] Following the pioneering work of Paul Kraus, who demonstrated that a corpus of some several hundred works ascribed to Jābir were probably a medley from different hands,^[10][18] mostly dating to the late ninth and early tenth centuries, many scholars believe that many of these works consist of commentaries and additions by his followers,^{[citation needed]} particularly of an Ismaili persuasion.^[19]
The scope of the corpus is vast: cosmology, music, medicine, magic, biology, chemical technology, geometry, grammar, metaphysics, logic, artificial generation of living beings, along with astrological predictions, and symbolic Imâmî myths.^[10]

• The 112 Books dedicated to the Barmakids, viziers of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. This group includes the Arabic version of the Emerald Tablet, an ancient work that proved a recurring foundation of and source for alchemical operations. In the Middle Ages it was translated into Latin (Tabula Smaragdina) and widely diffused among European alchemists.
• The Seventy Books, most of which were translated into Latin during the Middle Ages. This group includes the Kitab al-Zuhra ("Book of Venus") and the Kitab Al-Ahjar ("Book of Stones").
• The Ten Books on Rectification, containing descriptions of alchemists such as Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
• The Books on Balance; this group includes his most famous 'Theory of the balance in Nature'.

Jābir states in his Book of Stones (4:12) that "The purpose is to baffle and lead into error everyone except those whom God loves and provides for". His works seem to have been deliberately written in highly esoteric code (see steganography), so that only those who had been initiated into his alchemical school could understand them. It is therefore difficult at best for the modern reader to discern which aspects of Jābir's work are to be read as symbols (and what those symbols mean), and what is to be taken literally. Because his works rarely made overt sense, the term gibberish is believed to have originally referred to his writings (Hauck, p. 19).

People

Jābir's interest in alchemy was probably inspired by his teacher Ja'far as-Sadiq. When he used to talk about alchemy, he would say "my master Ja'far as-Sadiq taught me about calcium, evaporation, distillation and crystallization and everything I learned in alchemy was from my master Ja'far as-Sadiq." Imam Jafar was famed for his depth and breadth of knowldege. In addition to his knowledge of Islamic sciences, Imam Jafar was well educated in natural sciences, mathematics, philosophy , astronomy , anatomy , chemistry (alchemy), and other subjects. The foremost Islamic alchemist Jabir bin Hayyan (known in Europe as Geber) was his most prominent student. Other famous students of his were Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik Ibn Anas, the founders of two Sunni schools of jurisprudence, and Wasil ibn Ata, the founder of the Mutazilite school of Islamic thought. Imam Jafar was known for his liberal views on learning, and was keen to debate with scholars of different faiths and of different beliefs. Imam Abu Hanifa is quoted by many souces as having said "My knowledge extends to only two years. The two I spent with Imam Jafar Sadiq", some Islamic scholars have gone so far as to call Imam Jafar Saddiq as the root of most of Islamic jurisprudence, having a massive influence on Hanafi, Maliki and Shia schools of thought extending well into mainstream Hanbali and Shafi'i thought. Imam Jafar also attained a surpassing knowledge in astronomy and in the science of medicine. it is said that he wrote more than five hundred books on health care which were compiled and annotated by another great scholar and scientist of Islam, Jabir bin Hayyan
Jābir professes to draw his inspiration from earlier writers, legendary and historic, on the subject.^[20] In his writings, Jābir pays tribute to Egyptian and Greek alchemists Zosimos, Democritus, Hermes Trismegistus, Agathodaimon, but also Plato, Aristotle, Galen, Pythagoras, and Socrates as well as the commentators Alexander of Aphrodisias Simplicius, Porphyry and others.^[10] A huge pseudo-epigraphic literature of alchemical books was composed in Arabic, among which the names of Persian authors also appear like Jāmāsb, Ostanes, Mani, testifying that alchemy-like operations on metals and other substances were also practiced in Persia. The great number of Persian technical names (zaybaq = mercury, nošāder = sal-ammoniac) also corroborates the idea of an important Iranian root of medieval alchemy.^[21] Ibn al-Nadim reports a dialogue between Aristotle and Ostanes, the Persian alchemist of Achaemenid era, which is in Jabirian corpus under the title of Kitab Musahhaha Aristutalis.^[22] Ruska had suggested that the Sasanian medical schools played an important role in the spread of interest in alchemy.^[21] He emphasizes the long history of alchemy, "whose origin is Arius ... the first man who applied the first experiment on the [philosopher's] stone... and he declares that man possesses the ability to imitate the workings of Nature" (Nasr, Seyyed Hussein, Science and Civilization of Islam).

Theories

Jābir's alchemical investigations ostensibly revolved around the ultimate goal of takwin — the artificial creation of life. The Book of Stones includes several recipes for creating creatures such as scorpions, snakes, and even humans in a laboratory environment, which are subject to the control of their creator. What Jābir meant by these recipes is unknown.
Jābir's alchemical investigations were theoretically grounded in an elaborate numerology related to Pythagorean and Neoplatonic systems. The nature and properties of elements was defined through numeric values assigned the Arabic consonants present in their name, ultimately culminating in the number 17.
By Jabirs' time Aristotelian physics, had become Neoplatonic. Each Aristotelian element was composed of these qualities: fire was both hot and dry, earth, cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air, hot and moist. This came from the elementary qualities which are theoretical in nature plus substance. In metals two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jābir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. Like Zosimos, Jabir believed this would require a catalyst, an al-iksir, the elusive elixir that would make this transformation possible — which in European alchemy became known as the philosopher's stone.^[10]
According to Jabir's mercury-sulfur theory, metals differ from each in so far as they contain different proportions of the sulfur and mercury. These are not the elements that we know by those names, but certain principles to which those elements are the closest approximation in nature.^[23] Based on Aristotle's "exhalation" theory the dry and moist exhalations become sulfur and mercury (sometimes called "sophic" or "philosophic" mercury and sulfur). The sulfur-mercury theory is first recorded in a 7th century work Secret of Creation credited (falsely) to Balinus (Apollonius of Tyana). This view becomes wide spread.^[24] In the Book of Explanation Jabir says

the metals are all, in essence, composed of mercury combined and coagulated with sulphur [that has risen to it in earthy, smoke-like vapors]. They differ from one another only because of the difference of their accidental qualities, and this difference is due to the difference of their sulphur, which again is caused by a variation in the soils and in their positions with respect to the heat of the sun

Holmyard says that Jabir proves by experiment that these are not ordinary sulfur and mercury.^[12]
The seeds of the modern classification of elements into metals and non-metals could be seen in his chemical nomenclature. He proposed three categories:^[25]

• "Spirits" which vaporise on heating, like arsenic (realgar, orpiment), camphor, mercury, sulfur, sal ammoniac, and ammonium chloride.
• "Metals", like gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, iron, and khar-sini
• Non-malleable substances, that can be converted into powders, such as stones.

The origins of the idea of chemical equivalents might be traced back to Jabir, in whose time it was recognized that "a certain quantity of acid is necessary in order to neutralize a given amount of base."^{[26][verification needed]} Jābir also made important contributions to medicine, astronomy/astrology, and other sciences. Only a few of his books have been edited and published, and fewer still are available in translation.

Laboratory equipment and material

Jabirian corpus is renowned for its contributions to alchemy. It shows a clear recognition of the importance of experimentation, "The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery."^[27] He is credited with the use of over twenty types of now-basic chemical laboratory equipment,^[28] such as the alembic^[29] and retort, and with the description of many now-commonplace chemical processes – such as crystallisation, various forms of alchemical "distilation", and substances citric acid (the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits), acetic acid (from vinegar) and tartaric acid (from wine-making residues), arsenic, antimony and bismuth, sulfur, and mercury^[27][28] that have become the foundation of today's chemistry.^[30]
The works in Latin under the name of Geber include these important chemical processes (Von Meyer, 1906): The manufacture of nitric and sulfuric acids; The separation of gold from other metals through the agency of lead and saltpeter (potassium nitrate). The concept of a chemical compound; the mineral cinnabar, for example, as being composed of sulfur and mercury The purification of mercury. The classification of salts as water soluble, under the generic title "sal." The introduction of the word "alkali" to designate substances such as lye and other bases. The production of nitric acid by distilling a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), copper vitriol (copper sulfate), and alum (naturally occurring sulfate of iron, potassium, sodium or aluminum). The production of sulfuric acid through the heating of alum . The production of aqua regia, a solvent capable of dissolving gold, by mixing salmiac (ammonium chloride) and nitric acid. The production of alum from alum shale by recrystallizing it from water. The purification of substances through crystallization The precipitation of silver nitrate crystals from a solution by the addition of common salt, thus establishing a test for the presence of both silver and salt. The preparation of mercuric oxide from mercury by heating it with a metallic oxide, and mercuric chloride by heating mercury with common salt, alum and saltpeter. The preparation of arsenious acid. The dissolving of sulfur in solutions of alkalies, and its transformation when it interacts with aqua regia. The theory that the different metals are composed of varying degrees of sulfur and mercury. The production of saltpeter by mixing potash (potassium carbonate) and nitric acid. ,^[31]Asimov, Isaac. 1982. Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-17771-2
According to Ismail al-Faruqi and Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, "In response to Jafar al-Sadik's wishes, [Jabir ibn Hayyan] invented a kind of paper that resisted fire, and an ink that could be read at night. He invented an additive which, when applied to an iron surface, inhibited rust and when applied to a textile, would make it water repellent."^[32]

Alcohol and the mineral acids

According to Forbes "no proof was ever found that the Arabs knew alcohol or any mineral acid in a period before they were discovered in Italy, whatever the opinion of some modern authors may be on this point."^[33] Fractional distillation of alcohol first occurs about 1100 probably in Salerno. Magister Salernus (died 1167) provides one of the earliest direct recipes.^[33] Directions to make sulfuric acid, nitric acid and aqua regis appear in Liber Fornacum, De inventione perfectionis, and the Summa.^[33]

Legacy

Whether there was a real Jabir in the 8th century or not, his name would become the most famous in alchemy.^[16] He paved the way for most of the later alchemists, including al-Kindi, al-Razi, al-Tughrai and al-Iraqi, who lived in the 9th-13th centuries. His books strongly influenced the medieval European alchemists^[30] and justified their search for the philosopher's stone.^[34][35] In the Middle Ages, Jabir's treatises on alchemy were translated into Latin and became standard texts for European alchemists. These include the Kitab al-Kimya (titled Book of the Composition of Alchemy in Europe), translated by Robert of Chester (1144); and the Kitab al-Sab'een (Book of Seventy) by Gerard of Cremona (before 1187). Marcelin Berthelot translated some of his books under the fanciful titles Book of the Kingdom, Book of the Balances, and Book of Eastern Mercury. Several technical Arabic terms introduced by Jabir, such as alkali, have found their way into various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary.
Max Meyerhoff states the following on Jabir ibn Hayyan: "His influence may be traced throughout the whole historic course of European alchemy and chemistry."^[30]
The historian of chemistry Erick John Holmyard gives credit to Jābir for developing alchemy into an experimental science and he writes that Jābir's importance to the history of chemistry is equal to that of Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavoisier. The historian Paul Kraus, who had studied most of Jābir's extant works in Arabic and Latin, summarized the importance of Jābir to the history of chemistry by comparing his experimental and systematic works in chemistry with that of the allegorical and unintelligible works of the ancient Greek alchemists.^[36] The word gibberish is theorized to be derived from the Latinised version off Jābir's name,^[37] in reference to the incomprehensible technical jargon often used by alchemists, the most famous of whom was Jābir.^[38] Other sources such as the Oxford English Dictionary suggest the term stems from gibber; however, the first known recorded use of the term "gibberish" was before the first known recorded use of the word "gibber" (see Gibberish).

Quotation

• "My wealth let sons and brethren part. Some things they cannot share: my work well done, my noble heart — these are mine own to wear."^[39]

The Geber problem

The identity of the author of works attributed to Jabir has long been discussed.^[8] According to a famous controversy,^[40] pseudo-Geber has been considered as the unknown author of several books in Alchemy.^[41] This was first independently suggested, on textual and other grounds, by the nineteenth-century historians Hermann Kopp and Marcellin Berthelot.^[42] Jabir, by reputation the greatest chemist of Islam, has long been familiar to western readers under the name of Geber, which is the medieval rendering of the Arabic Jabir, the Geber of the Middle Ages.^[43] The works in Latin corpus were considered to be translations until the studies of Kopp, Hoefer, Berthelot, and Lippman. Although they reflect earlier Arabic alchemy they are not direct translations of "Jabir" but are the work of a 13th century Latin alchemist.^[44] Eric Holmyard says in his book Makers of Chemistry Clarendon press.(1931) [1].

There are, however, certain other Latin works, entitled The Sum of Perfection, The Investigation of Perfection, The Invention of Verity, The Book of Furnaces, and The Testament, which pass under his name but of which no Arabic original is known. A problem which historians of chemistry have not yet succeeded in solving is whether these works are genuine or not.

However by 1957 AD when he (Holmyard) wrote Alchemy. Courier Dover Publications. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-486-26298-7. Holmyard had abandoned the idea of an Arabic original. (although they are based on "Islamic" alchemical theories)

The question at once arises whether the Latin works are genuine translations from the Arabic, or written by a Latin author and, according to common practice, ascribed to Jabir in order to heighten their authority. That they are based on Muslim alchemical theory and practice is not questioned, but the same may be said of most Latin treatises on alchemy of that period; and from various turns of phrase it seems likely that their author could read Arabic. But the general style of the works is to clear and systematic to find a close parallel in any of the known writings of the Jabirian corpus, and we look in vain in them for any references to the characteristically Jabirian ideas of "balance" and the alphabetic numerology. Indeed for their age they have a remarkably matter of fact air about them, theory being stated with a minimum of prolixity and much precise practical detail being given. The general impression they convey is that they are the product of an occidental rather than an oriental mind, and a likely guess would be that they were written by a European scholar, possibly in Moorish Spain. Whatever their origin, they became the principal authorities in early Western alchemy and held that position for two or three centuries.

The question of Geber's identity, whether he is the original Jābir or a "pseudo-Geber" adopting his name, is still in dispute(1962).^[45]
It is said that Geber, the Latinized form of "Jābir," was adopted presumably because of the great reputation of a supposed 8th-century alchemist by the name of Jābir ibn Hayyān.^[46] About this historical figure, however, there is considerable uncertainty(1910).^[47]
This is sometimes called the "Geber-Jābir problem".^[48]
It is possible that some of the facts mentioned in the Latin works, ascribed to Geber and dating from the twelfth century and later, must also be placed to Jabir's credit. It is important to consider that it is impossible to reach definite conclusions until all the Arabic writings ascribed to Jābir have been properly edited and discussed.^[43]

The Pseudo-Geber corpus

The Latin corpus consists of books with an author named "Geber" for which researchers have failed to find a text in Arabic. Although these books are heavily influenced by Arabic books written by Jābir, the "real" Geber, and by Al Razi and others, they were never written in Arabic. They are in Latin only, they date from about the year 1310, and their author is called Pseudo-Geber:

• Summa perfectionis magisterii ("The Height of the Perfection of Mastery").^[49]
• Liber fornacum ("Book of Stills"),
• De investigatione perfectionis ("On the Investigation of Perfection"), and
• De inventione veritatis ("On the Discovery of Truth").
• Testamentum gerberi

The 2nd, 3rd and 4th books listed above "are merely extracts from or summaries of the Summa Perfectionis Magisterii with later additions."^[50]

English translations of Jābir and the pseudo-Geber

• E. J. Holmyard (ed.) The Arabic Works of Jabir ibn Hayyan, translated by Richard Russel in 1678. New York, E. P. Dutton (1928); Also Paris, P. Geuther.
• Syed Nomanul Haq, Names, Natures and Things: The Alchemists Jabir ibn Hayyan and his Kitab al-Ahjar (Book of Stones), [Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science p. 158] (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994), ISBN 0-7923-3254-7.
• Donald Routledge Hill, 'The Literature of Arabic Alchemy' in Religion: Learning and Science in the Abbasid Period, ed. by M.J.L. Young, J.D. Latham and R.B. Serjeant (Cambridge University Press, 1990) pp. 328–341, esp. pp 333–5.
• William Newman, New Light on the Identity of Geber, Sudhoffs Archiv, 1985, Vol.69, pp. 76–90.
• Geber and William Newman The Summa Perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A Critical Edition, Translation and Study ISBN 90-04-09466-4

Popular culture

• Geber is mentioned in Paulo Coelho's 1993 bestseller, The Alchemist.^[51]

• Jabbir is said to be the creator of a (fictional) mystical chess set in Katherine Neville's novels The Eight and The Fire

• In S.H.I.E.L.D, Jabir appears as the 8th century leader of the organization.

• Jabir is mentioned in the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory, in the episode "The Guitarist Amplification".

See also

• Alchemy
• Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
• Chemistry
• Al-Kindi
• List of Arab scientists and scholars
• List of Iranian scientists and scholars
• List of Shi'a Muslims
• Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi
• Science in medieval Islam

References